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joint, MGG article by Emil Platen, summary

I. General definition

The term joint (Italian for "fuga", English, queen "fugue.") Derives from the Latin word "fuga", which means escape, escape. The fugue is a type of independent contrapuntal technique, a closed form, as a generic principle of imitative implementation of a central musical idea (Soggetto, subject, subject) is based. This technology is set to the vocal polyphony of the 16th Century back, and has become the real medium of the joint instrumental music, particularly the keyboard music. In the literature stand out sentences that are not separated as a fugue for themselves, but often a higher-level work related as, fair, oratorio, sonata, variation cycle are integrated. The joint must have a form in terms of a carefully planned musical context, but no way be interpreted as a standardized, structured process.


II Compositional description

first The typesetting

The gap can be as single-issue, formally closed composition with fixed number of votes in imitative setting pattern, subject to certain rules with respect to individual course phases define. The fugue theme shapes the mood of the form and the principle of Einthemigkeit shall not be revoked in a fugue with several secondary thoughts.
As a general rule, imitating the topic, so unchanged in its structure, to conduct all votes. A special feature is the set of technical design of the opening form, exposure: The subject is presented by one after each vote, so that the music theory unfolds successively from unanimity beginning to reach the full number of votes. The ratio of rates to each other is constitutive of meaning: The first voice begins with the subject in the tonic key, the following voice onset, the so-called response mimics the topic, but it moved into the upper fifth or fourth below (dominant). The topic and the answer are referred to in the joint theory "Dux" and "Comes". The following operations the process is repeated: The third voice enters again as Dux in the tonic, the following as a Comes in the dominant. The bottom of the topic shift effect in major-minor tonal music, a harmonic voltage operation between tonic and dominant. If the interval Comes a true fifth transposition of the theme is, it is called a "real" answer. In the "tonal" answer to the Comes fit through slight modification of the head of the key topics at the Dux, before he goes into an exact fifth transposition. The Comes thus appears as a variant of the theme. This deviation from strict imitation is already in the vocal polyphony of the 16th Present century. The theorists have derived a doctrine as a response including "repercussio" is called "risposta" or "re-strike" can be designed.

Here's a little guide of the most important rules for the composition of a fugue follows: first

The most important rule is that to answer the subjects beginning with QT intervals fifths and vice versa.
second The form of the answer depends on the thematic structure: the theme applies to dominant is, in general a real answer.
third The subject should remain open and formal zäsurlos pass into a melodic line. In practice cuts or closure clauses are common in subjects that are often bypassed by passages.
4. The dissenting voice is often complementary invented the subject. If this is to vote against an accompanying voice also referred to as "counter-subject" or "Contrasoggetto" or 5 of "solid counterpoint," or "detained opposition."
The conciseness of the issue is particularly important. A theme is usually 2-4 bars.
6th The first implementation, the exposure of the subject, must be complete. This means that the exchange of Dux and Comes all the votes of taking the matter again.
7th The harmonic gap between the dominant area in Comes and Dux in the tonic is a short rückmodulierenden transition "Passage" or "codetta ', and balanced.

for the design of the future evolution of the joint no longer mandatory rules, as we have seen for the compositional structure and the harmonic system. As a means of increasing variety and is familiar with the various joint variation techniques: first

The extension of the tone duration, called the "Augmentation"
second The reduction of the durations, the "diminution
third The reversal in horizontal mirroring, the "inversion"
4th The use of the theme in its deteriorated form, the "cancer" (more rarely)

Another means of Increase is narrowing, "stretto" in which the subject approaches come off no longer, but in a shortened distance, are pushed together like a telescope and follow each other.

second The fugue as a form

The original principle of the fugue is a constant migration of the topic by the cast. The use of the mentioned compositional means provides the possibility for a certain structure. Initial results from the interaction of all thematic, textural and harmonic factors results in the individual form of a fugue. are the joint as defined shape and flow, it is not so.

third Types of joint

A distinction between "double, Triple or quadruple. "Contradiction subjects occur later in the course of the joint in their own exposures and not having the rank of a side issue. In the final phase of the topics will be heard together as the culmination of the composition.
In the "Gegenfuge" is the interval inversion of the theme from the beginning a constitutive element of the form. In the "Krebsfuge" the Dux of the subject by his declining form will be answered. In the "Umkehrungsfuge" the whole music theory from the middle of the play interval for interval vice versa, at the "Krebsfuge" is taking place in the same downward motion. The "Permutationsfuge" is based on the typesetting of invertible counterpoint. Assume a more coherent set of models, whose voices are interchangeable is a flow from unanimity to full polyphony unfolds. The counter-voices in this particular case, the function of counter-subject. The elaboration of the sentence is carried out by shifting the permuted set model.
The "canonical Fugue" or "fuga ligata" goes one step further than the Permutationsfuge. The canonical joints are usually designed in two parts over a free bass.
The "choral fugue" is based on their subject matter, which is derived from a chorale melody. The first chorale line shall be a subject of a separate joint, whereupon the full chorale as cantus firmus in broad connects note values and entwined with opposition.


III. History of the first joint

On the history

The term "fuga" is already in the 14th Century to be found and are also the same as performing area derived terms "caccia" and "chasse." The terms of a time-shifted course designed like melody lines. I now understand is a canon. Only after 1600, after an independent instrumental pieces with names like "Ricercar", "Canzona," "Fantasia," "Capriccio" have developed or "tiento", besides this occurs sporadically, the term "fuga" on a name for a musical form, so that no unique structural ideas were raised.

second The fugue in the 17th Century

Instrumental music preserves the compositional technique of the old imitation polyphony replaced, but by their formal models such as motets, madrigals and songs, to check their own design principles. The imitation process is replaced by the character of a planned and predictable process, which corresponds to the exposure of the prototype of the joint. The use
interval depends on the Pitch: The high treble voices imitate and tenor in the upper fifth, deep voices in the lower fifth. The transposition interval is rather determined by the order of the votes, as it follows a specific harmonic progression plan. Also typesetting art means such as inversion, stretto, augmentation and diminution were applied.
JP Sweenlinck has extended his fantasies by these techniques to great three-part forms: first
Implementation of the basic form of the second theme
Second section with magnification of the subject and counter-punctured small-unit motif
third Loud final section with reduction of the subject as an imitation material.

J. Titelouze led the fugal technique with his Werkt "Hymn de l'Eglise pour toucher sur l'orgue, avec le fugues et recherches sur le plain-chant "in the French organ music. N. De Grigny and J. Boyvin continued this tradition.
John Krieger works the joints in his graceful piano-exercise, consisting of different Ricercari, Preludes, Fugues from extensively. The highlight of this collection is to be a quadruple fugue, in which four subjects performed sequentially in four separate joints and in a fifth combined.
An exception are the organ fugues by D. Buxtehude. This is one movement but complex compositions, in which elaborate joint sections with elements of the Toccata and the variation are intertwined. Therefore they are called "Toccatenvariantenfugen." The importance of Buxtehude based on the quality of typesetting technology, a completely new type of voice leading, harmonization and pedal technique.
The polar opposite type of Buxtehude Pachelbel's Joh. His joints are well-founded function harmoniously, the fifth response is not observed, the shape is clearly evident and applied with a voltage gradient. J. Froberger and Pachelbel, as well as fellow John K. Fischer CF also include JS Bach's models. Fischer had already composed in 'Ariadne Musica "a cycle of preludes and fugues, in which only the five keys of C #, D # m, F #, G # m and Bm, of the 24 modern keys were missing. In the 17th

Century urges the fugal style a particularly Italy and France in non polyphonic forms in which, certain conventions have formed: If the Fugierung the Gigue in the suite, then for the middle part of the French overture and the second movement of the Sonata da chiesa fugal setting the way mandatory.
In the second half of the 17th Century, also takes on the vocal music by and by the characteristics of Instrumentalfuge as Quint response, single subject, Contrasoggetto, stretto and pedal point. With the involvement of obligatory instruments to choral music, the so-called "joint accompanied with polyphonic and core set of instrumental embellishment." Forms

third The fugue in the 18th Century

a. The gap in the work of JS Bach's

The joint is formed by the works of JS Bach to a type of great diversity. He is the great taxonomist, who developed their own joint-cosmos. The two series of works "The Well-Tempered Clavier" (1722) contains 24 preludes and fugues in all major and minor keys (BVW 846-869). Left in 1744 following a second part of Bach (BWV 870-893). Both works remained unpublished, but were told by copies so common that they were the epitome of the whole genre. In both works, the term horizon expands so that the Preludes as a change in colorful chordal intonations, Bicinia, trio sets, fantasies, or Concertoformen cantabile present Airs. The joints are expressive of their individual subject character pieces. There are motor, construction, reduced to a motive, impulse-driven, periodic, and dance toccatenhafte topic types to be found. The votes ranged from two to five, ranging from the structure of the continuous joint without interlude to clearly structured forms (eg, in two parts and five parts). There are gaps of up to 3 double subjects, with inversion, augmentation and diminution, stretto and with five times the simultaneous combination of theme and reverse, two double and a triple fugue fugues ... The imagination was the limit!
has the "Art of Fugue BWV 1080, Bach focuses on the essential and together the joints in a systematic order. The plant includes the elaboration of a theme with 14 variations, known as "Fugue". In addition, a processing Spiegelfuge No. 13 is as "Fuga a 2 clav "and" Fuga a 3 Soggetti "(the famous unfinished final fugue) and 4 as" Canon "designated pieces. In addition to these three compendia of the joint composition Bach has written more than a hundred other joints, such as organ fugues and choral fugues.
Bach's compositional thinking was so steeped in the joint, sat in their design principle in almost all Of his oeuvre reflected. Bach has set in his joint work standards, but the gap has not typed unifies. Its significance for the genus is that he has all options available to him exhausted and on the other hand has integrated the joint principle in all its available form types exemplary. Bach's experimentation has thus extended the possibilities of the appearance and the limits of expression of the joint area as a species.


b. The fugue in Bach's contemporaries

on important Fugisten in Bach's time are: John J. Fux, who wrote the important theoretical work on the joint "Gradus ad Parnassum and had composed exemplary vocal fugues, Handel, of the instrumental pieces "Six Fugues or Voluntarys", op 3 (London, 1735), had written, John Krieger, Johann Kuhnau, Johann Theile, Telemann and Johann G. Walther.

c. The gap after 1750

remained after Bach's death, the joint study and appreciation of his art on a small group of traditionalists in Berlin is limited. In the second third of the 18 Century, the joint of sonata, rondo and imagination pushed back. The Vokalfuge however, remained still an integral part of the church style. In the Protestant church music and choral Passion Kant Ante joints were more the exception than the rule. The Catholic rite preserved however, the fugal style. add sound to fugal The custom of the final words of the Gloria and the Credo of the Mass, solidified the topos of the fugue of the "Cum sancto spiritu" and the Fugue "Et vitam ventura." Critical exponents for the placement of the joint doctrine were Fux in Vienna and GB Martini in Bologna. Through their teachings remained the "stile antico" alive in the sacred music.
Between 1730 and 1800 was held in Vienna a rich production of instrumental joints. Well-known composers such as MG Monn, Fl. Gassmann and L. John G. Albrecht Berger also enriched this production. In his String Quartets Op 20, No 2, 5 and 6 suggests Haydn, the Problem of a better finale to be resolved by the end worked out joints. The 17-year-old Mozart in 1773 following his example with the Haydn quartets in F major, K. 168 and follow to D minor KV 173rd Ten years later, he devoted himself to intensive study of Bach's fugues. In the final sentences of the String Quartet in G major KV 387, the String Quintet in D major KV 593 E flat major, K. 614, the Piano Concerto in F major, K. 459 and especially in his Symphony in C major, K. 551, he gets very personal as a synthesis of fugal technique and motivic-thematic work and fugue and sonata. His major contribution to the history of the species of the Fugue, the "Fuga a due harpsichords," is in C minor KV 426 (1783).

4th The fugue in the 19th Century

also L. van Beethoven in mature working years deals again from scratch with the fugue as a compositional problem. He used his experience in the Fugatotechnik as a means of thematic processing. The result of this discussion is intended as a full joint in the final movements of some sonatas (op. 102.2, Op 106, Op 110) and found in the quartets of his late work, including the 106th of op Riesenfuge The "Grand Fugue / tantôt libre / tantôt recherchée" op 133, which was originally planned as a finale for the String Quartet Op 130, is of great importance. The "Grosse Fuge" deals still the research with the question of whether it was an oversized finale to the quartet, Op 130, or an independent Ensemblefuge. Beethoven tried to add up to one's compositional skills and to raise the issue of genre, in his view to a definitive solution.
A. Reicha tried the traditional edge form with his "Trente Six fugues pour le pianoforté, un nouveau système d'après composées" op 36 (Vienna 1803) to blow. He is conscious of style criteria such as polyphonic voice-leading, fifth in defense, real coherence and thematic focus attempts to terminate and four clock periods, Rosalie, parallel thirds, Alberti-bass and counterpoint with a to translate special issues in a modern musical language.
After Beethoven, the joint is a classic, no more vivid form of speech. It will also continue to maintain a compositional training. F. Mendelssohn Bartholdy's "Preludes and Fugues Op 35 for Piano, Op 37 for organ (1837), are understood as a commitment to the past. Schumann, too, has dealt with the contrapuntal study and publish the results in several works, such as Opus 56, 58, 60, 72, 1845th Also to mention his "6 Fugues on BACH for organ or pedal piano, op are 60th Even Liszt with a "Prelude and Fugue on BACH" for Organ (1855) demonstrated a reverence. Until the 20th Century written other artists such as A. Fr. Hess, M. Reger, F. Busoni, S. Karg-Elert, A. Honegger, A. Roussel, H. Eisler, E. Pepping, inter alia, joint with the musical cipher BACH. The complete works of Brahms and Bruckner, however, takes the joint as a unique form a subordinate place.
The joint is in the 19 Century to a symbol. You will be taken up to return to evoke the past and tradition as a means of characterization used in opera and symphonic poem, for the sacred or as a distortion. She also becomes the emphasis would be full representation in Richard Strauss' "Also Sprach Zarathustra" or derision in the "Mephisto-set" "Faust Symphony" by Liszt used. The exterior appearance of a joint implementation was of Verdi's "Macbeth" and in Wagner's "Meistersinger" is used to make the staged process successively occurring groups musically mature.

5th The fugue in the 20th

century comes to the turn of the century to a revival of the genus by M. Reger. His works include "The manes of JS Bach's" Organ Suite, Op 16, dedicated (1895) and "Fantasy and Fugue on BACH, Op 46 (1900) and other works. F. Busoni with his "Fantasia Contrappuntistica" (1910) the structure of Fantasia with a cathedral compared. The genus of the joint was maintained by I. Knorr, K. von Wolfurt, W. Von building designers, K. Hoeller and W. Walton. Also A. Honegger, P. Hindemith, Krenek E., KA Hartmann, W. Schumann, R. Vaughan-Williams and Benjamin Britten sympathized much with this genre. In general, the gap was in the works of composers who felt obliged to the tradition of greater importance.
Shostakovic has shown with his Opus 87 in the context of the fugue, the most diverse set of characters.
B. Bartok has treated in his "Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta" (1937) the compositional problem of the joint to individual and original manner, by developing a Fächerfuge this: a theme that extends from the central note screwed up back and back, is exposed in the string orchestra, namely, so that each even-numbered subjects used in the upper fifth, will be answered every odd in the corresponding lower fourth. The joint order from the tonal center moves up and down fans out, from So. At the end of the twelve times the execution is the tonal opposite Es / Dis reached the dynamic high point, from where is started by reducing the back issues.
a special case in the history of the species is that of A. Berg called "seam" of the 2nd Scene of the 2nd Act of the opera "Wozzeck," which the more imitative sentence with three themes, the complex structure within a sentence carried out and combined together, is effective as a joint. In
compositions without tonal center and athematic structures loses its essence, the joint feature and its meaning. On the base material can be applied to the twelve-tone contrapuntal techniques such as inversion, retrograde, augmentation, and the compositional techniques of imitation and canon, but the implementation of a series of fugal quinttransponierten repetition would be a contradiction within the system. Therefore, the "Chaconne and Fugue on a twelve-tone series is op 35 (1955) are not described as Zwölftonfuge R. Heger.
In the last third of the 20 Century the fugue has only sentimental value as material for websites, but as a compositional problem of date.


IV On the theory of joint

first Terminology

"fuga" As the first written evidence of the term is the treatise "Speculum Musicae," which was written in 1330 by Jacobus of Liege (Leodiensis). "Fuga" is mentioned there as a kind of polyphonic music. J. Tinctoris, in his "terminorum musicae diffinitorium" (ca. 1472/73), a first definition as the successive sounding of two identical melodic voices. Ramos de Pareja is also in the "Musica practica (Bologna 1482), a similar Definition, the general called "fuga" describes as an imitation of any kind. Gioseffo Zarlino has differentiated the term in his "Istitutioni harmoniche" (1558). Imitation in the interval intervals of second, third, sixth and seventh he calls "imitation" and limits the term "fuga" in imitation at the octave, fifth and fourth. It must be preserved in the imitation half-and Ganztonabstände. Zarlino distinguishes between "fuga legata" as a strict canon and "fuga Sciolta" freer than imitation. He also leads the terms "guida" and "consistently" for a Dux and Comes. In the 16th
Century, the word "fuga" a set of technical issue, namely, canonical or imitative vocal leadership. Praetorius explains the term "fuga" as the German expression for "ricercare." In the Tabulaturbüchern B. Schmid (1607) and J. Wolz (1617) are called joints "canoni alla francese". As title addition is often "Ricercar" or "canzone" and sometimes the phrase "due con (con tre) Fugh." From the middle of the 17th Century is made in Germany and France, the term joint, or "fugue" for by instrumental pieces in fugal style. The term "fuga in alio sensu, which focuses not on the imitation, but to a series of short note values.

second Typesetting

The imitative form of opening, in particular the nature of the response of the fugue subject was, for centuries as the central problem of the joint theory. Quint A real answer would exceed the Oktavgrenze and therefore be against the rules. By answering the fifth as the initial interval by the complementary fourth (tonal response) remained Oktavraum preserved. This issue is discussed in the "Tractatus compositionis augmentatus" (ca. 1660) by Chr Bernard detail. The problem of the modal response was to level with authentic or plagal Mode solved. Towards the end of the 17th Century is slowly the major-minor tonality. In the "Traité de l'harmonie (Paris 1722) by Rameau, the terms" tonic "and" dominant "is introduced. Now shifted the theoretical foundation of the joint of the melody to the harmony, where theme and answer as a representative of tonic and dominant stand. has influenced another textbook that generations of composers, "Gradus ad parnassum" (Vienna 1725) by John J. Fux. The publication "Esemplare ossia Saggio fondamentale e pratico Tues Contrappunto" (Bologna 1774/75) by GB Martini has also exercised great influence. Another Textbook, which is based explicitly on the joint work of JS Bach, is determined by harmonic thinking and on the instrumental-oriented style, the "Treatise on the Fugue" (1753/54) of Fr W. Marpurg. He leads the definition of "periodic joint" and thus forms the starting point for all later theory. After this time the gap by five characteristic features is that: first

Leader, the topic as Dux
second Companion in answer
third Back stroke, the principle of theme and answer exchange
4th Against harmony as counterpoint to the theme
5th Between harmony in non-thematic parts.

third Shaping

theorists have tried repeatedly to determine the ideal shape of the joint. H. Riemann began with a three-part: The three stages include the topics of the joint statement in the tonic, the distance to other tonal areas and the return to the home key. Scientists have taken more and more distance from a rigid joint scheme and replaces the form considered by the various manifestations of the joint. In the 19th
Century is a numerous theoretical and didactic literature on the joint formed. Among the most important textbooks of the theory Weinlig, J. Chr. Lobe, EF Richter, H. Beller, and S. Jadassohn man in Germany, JF Fétis, L. Cherubini, A. Gédalge in France E. Prout and CH Kitson, and in England.
mid-20th Century caused contrapuntal works that are not aligned historically, including:
"The Polyphonic set" by E. Pepping, "Preliminary Exercises in Counterpoint" by A. Schoenberg, "Twentieth Century Counterpoint" by H. Searle and "Introduction to strict set "by B. Blacher.

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Bruno Nettl: "Music"

(New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians; edited by Stanley Sadie, London 2001, Vol 17, pp 108-109.) Summary


I. The word: etymology and formal definitions

Selecting from a number of alternative viewpoints, this article addresses issues and approaches to perspectives that exhibit the great variety of the world’s music and of the diversity of cultural attitudes and conceptions of music. Different societies, subcultures, historical periods and individual musicians may have sharply differing ideas on what constitutes music and about its characteristics and essentials, its significance, function and meaning. Providing a universally acceptable definition and characterization of both word and concept is beyond the capacity of a single statement by one author...

1. Etymology

The English word, “music”, was adapted from the French “musique”, in turn an adaptation of the Latin “musica” which was taken from the classical Greek “mousiké”. Referring originally to works or products of all or any of the nine Muses, it began gradually to be restricted to the arts generally covered by the modern term. The word “music” is almost used on Indo-European languages spoken in Europe, even if it’s not a part of early Indo-European vocabulary: German “Musik”, Norvegian “musikk”, Polish “muzyka”, Russian “muzïka”, Dutch “musiek”, Latin “musica”, English “música”, French “musique”. Some Indo-European language, however, maintained older words for the concept of music: Czech “hudba” and Croatian “glazba”. The latter is related to the word sound. Both languages also use the alternative “muzika”. The Arabic “musiqi” was borrowed from Greek and further introduced to Persian, Hebrew and Swahili. Modern Indonesian “musik” and Shona “musakazo” are examples of languages in which the word was recently introduced.

At least three approaches are helpful in determining a society’s definitions of components of its culture:
1. Consulting the formal statements of authorities like dictionaries or reference books and perhaps sacred texts or in smaller societies wise elders;
2. Asking average members of a society;
3. Constructing formulations of the system of ideas about a concept and even a word by observing relevant behaviour.

2. Language dictionaries

Here there are some dictionaries definitions of the word “music”:

OED: “That one of the fine arts which is concerned with the combination of sounds with a view to beauty of form and the experience of emotion; also, the science of the laws or principles (of melody, harmony, rhythm, etc.) by which this art is regulated.”

Webster Third International Dictionary (New York, 1981): “The science or art of incorporating pleasing, expressive, or intelligible combinations of vocal or instrumental tones into a composition having definite structure and continuity”.

Brockhaus –Wallring deutsches Wörterbuch (Wiesbaden, 1982): Die Kunst, Töne in Ästhetische befriedigender Form nacheinander (Melodie) und nebeneinander (Harmonie) ordnen zu, zu rhythmisch gliedern, Werk und zu einem geschlossenen zusammenzufügen. "

Great Dictionary of the Italian language (ed. S . Battaglia, Turin, 1981): "Art to combine and coordinate various ways over time and space sounds, produced through the voice or instruments and organized structures quantified according to the height, duration, intensity and timbre ; science of sounds considered in terms of melody, harmony and rhythm. "

Dictionnaire de la language française (ed. E. Littre, Paris 1873): “Science ou emploi des sons qu’on nomme rationels, c’est-à-dire qui entrent dans une échelle dite gamme.”

To the literate population of Western Europe the word “music” refers in the first instance to composing. Music is art and science, it involves the satisfactory combination of constituent materials and it is intended to be beautiful, expressive or intelligible. The dictionary definitions suggest that music serves both aesthetic and communicative functions.

3. General encyclopedias

In contrast to language dictionary the task of general encyclopedias is providing an overview of human and natural facts from a particular cultural perspective. Here there are some definitions form enyclcopedias:

La grande encyclopédie Larousse (Paris 1975): “Language des sons qui permet au musicien de s’exprimer.”

Brockhaus Enzyklopädie: “[Musik ist] die Tonkunst.”

Grote Winkler Prins enyclopedie (Amsterdam, 1971): „Kunsvorm die berust op het ordenen van klankfenomenen“ („art form based on the ordering of sound phenomena“).

The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Chicago, 1974) offers in its „Micropedia“, an article „Art of Music“: „expression in musical form, from the most simple to the most sophisticated, in any musical medium“. The article titled “Art of Music” in it s “Macropedia”, begins: “Both the simple folk song and the complex electronic composition belong the same activity, music.”

Great Soviet Encyclopedia (translated from the third edition, New York, 1974): “An art form that reflects reality and affects man through sensible and specially organized sound sequences consisting chiefly of tones (sounds of definite pitch). Music is a specific variant of the sound made by people.”

There may be disagreement on the need for explicit definition, but all these works maintain that music involves sounds and their combination, that it is both art and science involving both talent and creativity as well as knowledge - And that its principal manifestation is composing music, rather than other activities and events that belong to the domain of music.


4th European musical Authorities of the past

In Western culture theorists and composers have frequently been motivated to define music.

Johann Mattheson (1739): "Music is a science and art of providing skillful and pleasant sounds wisely, properly attach to each other and lovely to bring out so be promoted by its euphony glory of God and all virtues."

FW Marpurg ( 1750): "The word music means the science or the customers of the sounds."

Eduarsd Hanslick (1854): "... sounding moving form."

Ernst Kurth (1920): "Music is more powerful charisma thrown up their forces in Urvorgänge inaudible circle."

Hans Pfitzner (1926): "Music is the image the view of the world "

Arnold Schoenberg (1922):". Music is at its lowest stage simply imitation of nature. But soon it becomes imitation of nature in a broader sense, not just imitation of the surface of nature but that is of its inner essence "

Igor Stravinsky (1935/6-36):". Music is Essentially unable to "express" anything , wheter it be feeling, attitude, psychic state, a phenomenon of nature, etc. “Expression” has never been an intrinsic trait of music.”

5. Looking to the vernacular and to behaviour

If the study of published authorities in the field of definition provides at least some agreement on the nature and attributes of music, less unanimity is provided by other approaches to determining the definition and essence of music. The issue of definition is complicated further by the fact that each society uses its culture to structure and classify the world in its own way, based on its view of nature, the supernatural, the environment and society. It ought to be possible to define music in an interculturally valid way, but the fact that definers inevitably speak with the language and from the cultural viewpoint of their own societies is a major obstacle. Nevertheless musicologists generally regard music as a cultural universal.


II. The concept in a variety of cultures

The conceptions of music held by different societies, European and non-European, may be illustrated by a few selected examples providing some broad generalizations. In no culture is there unanimity of thought or opinion on fundamental issues such as the nature of music. While it is helpful to compare cultures with the use of strong, unified characterizations, it is also important to bear in mind the rich complexity of contradictory ideas, conceptions and verbal and artistic expressions in each.

1. Contemporary western culture

In Western culture the word “music” suggest a unitary concept, in the sense that all “music” is to an equal degree music, and the term “music” applies equally to art, popular, folk and other strata or genres. In the Western conception, however, not all music is equally valuable, and the shape of the concept tends to depend on the observer’s social group.
In Western societies instrumental music is more “musical” than vocal music. The Czech word for music, “hudba”, denotes primarily instrumental music and suggests vocal music in a secondary way. The word “muzika” suggests instrumental music specifically. The words “Musik” and “Tonkunst” in German are synonyms and “Tonkunst” in particular suggests Western art music and is hardly ever encountered in literature about popular, folk or or any non-Western music. The Western world sees music as a positive phenomenon. In English, “music” is used as a metaphor for beautiful, welcome or desirable sounds.
Various animal sounds are assigned musical quality. Birds “sing” and the sounds of whales and porpoises are usually associated with music, as is the “trumpeting” of the elephants and the “song” of swans, but not the barking of non-favourite dogs! In part, this may reflect the standing of these animals in traditional Western human opinions; people view birds, whales and porpoises more favourably than cows, monkeys and wolves; the former are therefore capable of music-making, while others, whose voices may be similar to certain conventional music sounds, are excluded.
In Western culture, music is a good thing, and it is good people who are associated with music. This characterizes European thought of the ancients and of the Middle Ages. The Pythagorean had a concept of “harmony of the spheres” of the solar system. Boethius suggests a division of music into three areas:

1. “musica mundana” (harmony of the world and the universe)
2. “musica humana” (harmony of the human body and soul)
3. “musica instrumentalis” (musical sound).

This concept played a major role in medieval thought and is very different from the music concept of the 20th century.

2. East Asia

In Japan Western music, traditional Japanese music and the music of other societies are all equally considered to be music. The concept emphasizes a firm classification of categories and genres, determined by function, instrument, and time and place of origin. Various works on Japanese music distinguish importantly between “biwa”, “koto” and “shakuhachi” and “shamisen” music, between concert, dance, theatre and folk music.
The multiplicity of genres and intercultural combinations is even more pronounced in Chinese culture. It is important to understand that the concept of music in the broad sense, “yue”, has a consistent history. The same ideograph my also be pronounced “le”, meaning enjoyment and happiness. The ancient form of the ideograph embodies all the arts: the performing arts of music and dance, literature, the fine arts, architecture and even the culinary arts as well. The music concept distinguishes between Chinese and other music, separating not by style as much as by origin.

3. Iran and the Middle East

Middle Eastern Islamic cultures use two contrasting terms to denote musical sound: “musiqi” and “khandan”. “Musiqi” refers to the broad spectrum of music as does music in Western culture, but it is used explicitly to designate instrumental music and less for vocal music; it refers to metric, composed sounds more than the non-metric and improvised. It is not used for sacred music but is reserved for secular social contexts. “Khandan”, on the other hand means “reading, reciting, singing” and is used most to indicate non-metric, improvised, sacred and serious genres.
In authoritative treatises, the concept of music as denoted by “musiqi” is often the object of ambivalence and criticism. The more it departs from the principles of “khandan”, the more it should be eschewed by the devout Muslim. In contemporary everyday life “musiqi” is designated with adjectives such as “sonati” (traditional), “mahalli” (regional) and “khoregi” (foreign) and so on.
Singing or chanting the Koran is totally “khandan” and has no musical quality.
The positive metaphorical extensions of music in Western culture seem to be hardly prominent, or perhaps even absent, in Middle Eastern Islamic cultures. The actual uses of music in the two cultures are similar, but in their conception, definition and evaluation of music the two differ importantly.

4. India

The high culture of Northern India has concepts that parallel Western ones as well as those of China. The word most closely equivalent to “music” is “sangita”, which in early times encompasses music and dance, but which later came to mean something like “music”. In modern-usage, it is the Indian vernacular word closest to “music” but refers, most specifically, to classical or art music. The word “gita” or “git” in combination with other words designates different genres, such as “filmi git” (film music or film songs) and “lok git” (folk or people’s songs).
In the theoretical literature of Indian music, “sangita” is divided into categories involving stylistic traits, instruments and instrument types, association with religious categories, dance and drama; and is itself a subdivision of categories of thought and creation such as rhythm, emotion and ritual.

5. Some African cultures

Except in their adoption of Western terminology and concepts, many African societies may not have a conception of music matching the holistic one in Western culture.

The Hausa people of Nigeria have an extraordinarily rich vocabulary for discourse about music, but no single word for music. The nearest equivalent to a generic word for “music” is “rok’o” that means “begging” and that does not cover all organization of sonorities. The Basongye of Zaire had a broad conception of what music, but no corresponding term. To the Basongye music is a purely and specifically human product. For them when you are content, you sing and when you are angry, you make noise. A song is tranquil, a noise not. The Tiv people of Nigeria also have no word for music as a whole. Shona, the main language of Zimbabwe, has the word “musakazo” that means “continuous instrumental music”. The most common Shona is associated with the concept of music is “tamba” that means “to play”.

Although it is dangerous to generalize about African musical cultures, it seems that the African conception of music is similar to that of the West in its use for designating desirability and positive value.

6. Some Amerindian and Oceanian cultures

In some North American Indian languages there is no word for “music” as distinct from the word “song”. Flute melodies too are labelled as “songs”.
In the traditional culture of the Blackfoot people of Montana there was no distinction between songs, which have supernatural sources, and speech of human provenance. Music was human-specific, animals did not “sing”. Music seems to be a system that reflects or reproduces the social system, a kind of conceptual microcosm of society and culture. The Blackfoot language has the word “passakan”, which applies to events including singing, dancing and ceremony.
The Oglala Sioux do not have a single word for music, but they have two important linguistic morphemes “ya” (relating to mouth) and “ho” (relating to sound) that serve to integrate a large number of objects, ideas and processes involving music.
The ‘Are’are people of Malaita, in the Solomon Islands, also have no term uniting all kinds of music. The basic ‘Are’are musical terminology is derived from four morphemes:
1. “‘au” (bamboo)
2. “’o’o” (a slit-drum)
3. “nuuha” (song)
4. “kiroha” (referring to a sound game played under water, leading to specific glosses of stamping-tubes, panpipe ensemble and beating the slit-drums).
For the Suyá of Amazonian Brazil song is the result of a particular relationship between humans and the rest of the universe, involving an unusually close relationship and merging of states of being into a single combined state of being expressed through music. When humans, birds, animals, and other aspects of the universe are conjoined, the result is sound.

These examples show that the concept of music differs very greatly from culture to culture and that it is often inseparable from other domains of culture, particularly dance and drama.


III. The concept in scholarship

1. Definitions of the word an concept

(The author makes a list of the definition of music found in various dictionaries that is some kind of repetitive).

(...)

Most of the dictionaries definitions agree that music is an art combining sounds. But even these definitions suggest a variety of opinions.

Sartory regards arts that consist of sound an intrinsically music, avoiding, for example, the dilemma posed by arts involving speech. Bengtsson and Hüschen imply that a variety of non-congruent definitions from different periods and cultures may all be equally valid.
Eggebrecht maintains that music is a Western phenomenon, the definitions he presents refers only to music in Western culture, indeed, to art music. Eggebrecht’s unicultural approach contrasts with that of A.J. Ellis and his successors who became ethnomusicologists, and for whom music in its cultural variation was explicitly not a natural phenomenon. Keldïsh implies an intercultural view informed by psychology and biology.
Throughout, the definitions are narrower than the cultural usage of music would require.

2. Some central characteristics

From the time when musicology was set forth as a formal discipline by Guido Adler (1885), musicologists have taken a broad view of music. Adler’s article specifies the inclusion of various strata of music, all cultures and periods. Since Adler, musicologists have introduced hierarchies and made decisions as to what musics are in fact worthy of study, but they have not shrunk from these broad boundaries. Some definitions have been unreasonably broad. Thus Paul Henry Lang defined musicology as the science that “unites in its domains all the sciences which deal with the production, appearance, and application of the physical phenomenon called sound” (Harap, 1938), suggesting that the analysis of all sound, including speech, in the field’s purview and thus, by extension, capable of being understood as music.
The question of boundaries has been addressed by ethnomusicologists. John Blacking (1973) defined music as “humanly organized sound”. It is important to note the implication that music must be organized, is principally “sound”, is human-specific.
Alan P. Merriam (1964) proposed a model for the understanding of music that separates three sectors, sound behaviour and concept – equally components of music which affect each other constantly - but avoids the idea that music is principally sound.
George Herzog, in the title of an article, asked the serious question, “Do Animal have Music?” (1941) and replied tentatively in the affirmative. Ethnomusicologists have included analytical consideration of whale’s and porpoise’s sounds among the papers at their conventions. Sounds produced in early childhood could be considered to be either pre-linguistic or pre-musical, too.
One may define music as an art, that is, an activity whose practise requires special knowledge and ability; as a form of communication in which all humans participate; and as a set of distinct physiological processes.
The musicological concept of music is dominated by a contradiction. On the one hand, musicologists have brought to the world of performers and listeners a vast quantity of previously unknown music and in the course of this search have given their attention to much music considered inferior or irrelevant by others. On the other hand, they have found it necessary to justify their work of claims of hitherto unexpected aesthetic value in the music with which they deal. In the musicological professions there is an opposition between the tenet that musicologists study all music (or even all sound) and the insistence that musical works, performances or even entire systems or cultures do not have equal value.

3. Music among the arts

In Western culture musical creation is customarily divided into composition and performance, with improvisation perhaps an intermediate stage. Performance is not as respected as composition, and members of Western society do not think of music as a large conglomeration of performances. The world’s greatest musicians are composers far more than performers. Improvisation in art music has generally been regarded more as a craft than as an art.
In the conceptions of many societies, the visual arts and literature differ from music in the significance and nature, and perhaps even in the presence, of their performance component.
Music has been one of the arts in Western and musicological conception for millennia. Yet there may be obstacles to the complete inclusion of music in the realm of art, and differences in the degree and nature of artistic quality between music and other recognized arts, literature and visual arts. Two should identified:
(a) Music is an art, but in a number of the world’s cultures, not all music is equally “art”. We speak of “art music” or “Kunstmusik”, fashioned by composers who are artists, but do not admit popular songs or the songs of tribal societies into the same circle.
(b) More serious, intellectually, is the lack of parallel between music and literature in the relationships between the source materials and the art works. Not all uses of language are works of art, but the literary artist selects from everyday speech and fashions artistic products. In musicological discourse, music is sometimes referred as a “language”, but the distinction between vernacular and art music, even where culturally recognized, is of a totally different order from the difference between everyday speech and literature.

The questions in the musicological conception then remain: is all music art; is some of it art and some something else, presently undefined; or should music as a whole be viewed a system of communication analogous to language? What are the musical analogues to Saussure’s distinction between “parole” and “language”?

4. Music among the domains of culture

The world’s societies have greatly differing conceptions of music and its place in life and culture, assigning it broad or narrow scope, placing it high or low among the domains, some associating it mainly with dance and drama, others with speech, or with the arts as a whole, or again with religion and ceremonials, or yet with undesirable activities such as drinking and trance-like behaviour. The way in which musicologists in Western culture view the relationship of music to other cultural domains is a counterpart to these associations.
The concept of musicality has played a greater role than have its equivalents in other arts.
Music is alternately the vile work of villains and the expression of greatest cultural heroism.
Musicologists have naturally emphasized the latter, trying to associate music in each culture or period they study with the most desirable and developed of its cultural domains. For the 20th century, musicologists have been prone to see music in its relationship to the social sciences, and for the Middle Ages, to theology. Students of non-Western music have most frequently looked at music in its relationships to language and to social organisation.

5. The function of music

An important approach of musicology to the conceptualization of music is the study of the function of music in culture. A traditional view separates art music, often presumed to be essentially “l’art pour l’art”, from functional music that includes folksongs, popular music for entertainment, “vernacular” music such as marches and dance music and congregational church music such as hymns. The distinction between “art” and other music has come under attack and is in any event often difficult to apply.
Ethnomusicologists conclusions extend from the enumeration of uses of music in one society or all of the world’s cultures, to attempts to see music as having only one unique function, or a cluster of related ones. Whatever the many uses of music in the world’s societies, all cultures use music to integrate and unify a society and to draw boundaries among societies and their subdivisions, which may include subcultures, age groups and socio-economic classes. As the world’s cultures have become globalized and countries, cities, and even neighbourhoods increasingly heterogeneous, music as a kind of weapon for confronting the cultural “other” becomes more significant.
The close association of music with society, and its role in the interactions of ethnic groups and nations, may be a survival of the function of pre-musical sounds in early human times in which social groups may have impressed (and frightened?) each other with the use of powerful organized sound. Music appears universally, to be for communicating with the supernatural world, also a kind of “other”.
Ethnomusicologists in general take for granted that whatever universals exist in the sphere of function; each society has a unique configuration of musical functions and uses.

6. Classification

Statements by musicologists defining music often move quickly to an accounting of types of music, and classification subdividing music seem often to be part of basic musicological definitions and conceptualisations. The division of music into natural, human and sonic kinds of harmony by Boethius, was the starting–point for large number of classifications in European culture. Others include the division into theoretical and practical music, introduced by Aristoxenus (300 BCE) and reintroduced about 1500. Isidore of Seville (559-636) includes “musica harmonica” (vocal music), “musica ex flatu” (music of wind instruments) and “musica rhythmica ex pulses digitorum” (music produced by striking, e.g. percussion and plucked strings). In the 14th century, Theodoricus de Campo used the categories of “musica mundana” and “musica humana”, like those of Boethius, adding “musica vocalis” (animal sounds) and “musica artificialis” (music as we know it), which was again subdivides into vocal music with a sections of rhythmic declamation, and instrumental music with subdivisions of string, wind and percussion. Musicologists in the 20th century divided music by period of composition, by culture and subculture and by social function.
The classification of music in other cultures are complex, often following social and ceremonial functions, and from the 20th century onward, often taking into account intercultural differences.
In the late 20th century, the parallel or contrastive role of the sexes in the world’s musical culture, and contributions of women, came to receive substantial attention. Contrary to widespread beliefs promulgated in the past, there is no evidence to suggest that either men or women are innately more “musical”. In most societies a substantial difference in the nature of men’s and women’s participations in various area of music is maintained. In many societies the distinctions are so pronounced that the terms “women’s music” and “men’s music” are appropriate.
The traditional Western classification by orchestral instrument groups and the India-derived system of Hornbostel and Sachs (1914), inform importantly about Western attitudes toward music. The same may be said of a traditional Chinese classification system and of instrument classification developed in other societies.

7. Music as a universal phenomenon

Music is found in all human societies. It is a cultural universal. Ethnomusicologists, in particular, regard music as a human universal and have argued widely about its universal characteristics.
If one were, however, to make a comprehensive census of all human cultures or culture-units, one would probably find exceptions to all characteristics proposed as universals.
If there is a definition of music agreeable to the readers of this work, and if all cultures “have music”, then all cultures must partake of this definitions. In other words, if we are to accept that all cultures do have music, then all the world’s music(s) must minimally conform to that definitions. Second, all societies, including those that use a term like “music” or seem to have an unified conception of it, and those who have not, have a type or kind of stylizes vocal expression distinguished from ordinary speech.
But if all societies have music, is music a property of all human individuals, or of all normally developed humans? Psychologists have long assumed that there is such a thing as musicality, possessed by individuals to varying degrees, and in Western societies it is common to distinguish between “musical” and “unmusical” persons. At the same time, it is widely assumed that all normal humans have a capacity of participating in some sense in a complex of related activities labelled as “musicking” (Small, 1998).
The question of musicality as part of the equipment of the normal human, broached by John Blacking in “How Musical is Man?”, is answered by the suggestion that humans are basically musical, that music is a human universal, and that there is sufficient unity to justify thinking of all musics as a part of a single system.

8. The world of music or musics

Languages dictionaries, general encyclopedias and music dictionaries agree with the fact that music is found in all cultures. Because of this fact, one would assume that music has a single origin, was invented once by humans and then perhaps gradually diffused and thus changed, each culture adapting traits to its own needs. Indeed, one issue in the musicological profession concerns its view of the world of music: is the world of music a single world, and are we justified in saying that humans “have music”, or does the world of music instead consist of musics, each an individual, internally consistent system, somewhat like a language?

The 19th and early 20th centuries produced several theories:

Music originated as the human version of animal mating cries (Darwin, 1871);
As the stylization of elevated or emotional speech (a view attributed to Wagner);
As rhythmic accompaniment to group labour (Bücher, 1896);
As a derivative of long-distance vocal communication (Stumpf, 1911);
As a human invention for addressing the supernatural (Nadel, 1930).
Sachs (1943) distinguished two kinds of origin – from speech and from emotional expression.
The idea that music comes about because of specific social needs in different societies on different routes of multilateral cultural evolution suggests that different societies might have individually “invented” music on separate occasion. This might be the reason for the enormous stylistic variety in the world’s music. Separate origins might account for the absence of universal conceptions of terms for music. The discovery and analysis of sounds produced by certain animal species in which ordinary communicative sounds and mating calls and “songs” carry a distinction paralleling that of speech and song suggests that music may have originated simultaneously with language or possibly before.
The publication of significant musicological works during the second half of the 20th century questioning the boundaries of music and discussing the nature of the world of music are constantly being debated and the positions held towards these questions are constantly shifting.

In developing a definition and conceptualization of music, it is difficult to choose among the approaches mentioned. The purpose of this article is to show that, in conception of music, the world is a pastiche of diversity, and Thus the author is Obliged to avoid commitment to a single position.